A Short History of the World

{xv} Burgundian Nobility (Statuettes) 283-4 The Empire of Jengis Khan Map 288 Ottoman Empire before 1453 Map 289 Tartar Horsemen 291 Ottoman Empire, 1566 Map 292 An Early Printing Press 296 Ancient Bronze from Benin 299 Negro Bronze-work 300 Early Sailing Ship (Italian Engraving) 301 Portrait of Martin Luther 305 The Church Triumphant (Italian Majolica work, 1543) 307 Charles V (the Titian Portrait) 311 S. Peter's, Rome: the High Altar 315 Cromwell Dissolves the Long Parliament 321 The Court at Versailles 323 Sack of a Village, French Revolution 325 Central Europe after Peace of Westphalia, 1648 Map 326 European Territory in America, 1750 Map 330 Europeans Tiger Hunting in India 331 Fall of Tippoo Sultan 332 George Washington 337 The Battle of Bunker Hill 338 The U.S.A., 1790 339 The Trial of Louis XVI 344 Execution of Marie Antoinette 346 Portrait of Napoleon 352 Europe after the Congress of Vienna Map 353 Early Rolling Stock, Liverpool and Manchester Railway 356 Passenger Train in 1833 356 The Steamboat Clermont 357 Eighteenth Century Spinning Wheel 361 Arkwright's Spinning Jenny 361 An Early Weaving Machine 363 An Incident of the Slave Trade 367 Early Factory, in Colebrookdale 368 Carl Marx 372 Electric Conveyor, in Coal Mine 376 Constructional Detail, Forth Bridge 378 American River Steamer 385 Abraham Lincoln 387 {xvi} Europe, 1848-71 Map 391 Victoria Falls, Zambesi 395 The British Empire, 1815 Map 397 Japanese Soldier, Eighteenth Century 401 A Street in Tokio 403 Overseas Empires of Europe, 1914 Map 406 Gibraltar 407 Street in Hong Kong 408 British Tank in Battle 410 The Ruins of Ypres 411 Modern War: War Entanglements 412 A View in Petersburg under Bolshevik Rule 418 Passenger Aeroplane in Flight 423 A Peaceful Garden in England 426 {1} I THE WORLD IN SPACE The story of our world is a story that is still very imperfectly known. A couple of hundred years ago men possessed the history of little more than the last three thousand years. What happened before that time was a matter of legend and speculation. Over a large part of the civilized world it was believed and taught that the world had been created suddenly in 4004 B.C., though authorities differed as to whether this had occurred in the spring or autumn of that year. This fantastically precise misconception was based upon a too literal interpretation of the Hebrew Bible, and upon rather arbitrary theological assumptions connected therewith. Such ideas have long since been abandoned by religious teachers, and it is universally recognized that the universe in which we live has to all appearances existed for an enormous period of time and possibly for endless time. Of course there may be deception in these appearances, as a room may be made to seem endless by putting mirrors facing each other at either end. But that the universe in which we live has existed only for six or seven thousand years may be regarded as an altogether exploded idea. The earth, as everybody knows nowadays, is a spheroid, a sphere slightly compressed, orange fashion, with a diameter of nearly 8,000 miles. Its spherical shape has been known at least to a limited number of intelligent people for nearly 2,500 years, but before that time it was supposed to be flat, and various ideas which now seem fantastic were entertained about its relations to the sky and the stars and planets. We know now that it rotates upon its {2} axis (which is about 24 miles shorter than its equatorial diameter) every twenty-four hours, and that this is the cause of the alternations of day and night, that it circles about the sun in a slightly distorted and slowly variable oval path in a year. Its distance from the sun varies between ninety-one and a half millions at its nearest and ninety-four and a half million miles. [Illustration: "LUMINOUS SPIRAL CLOUDS OF MATTER"] About the earth circles a smaller sphere, the moon, at an average distance of 239,000 miles. Earth and moon are not the only bodies to travel round the sun. There are also the planets, Mercury and Venus, at distances of thirty-six and sixty-seven millions of miles; and beyond the circle of the earth and disregarding a belt of numerous smaller bodies, the planetoids, there are Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune at mean distances of 141, 483, 886, 1,782, and 1,793 millions of miles respectively. These figures in {3} millions of miles are very difficult for the mind to grasp. It may help the reader's imagination if we reduce the sun and planets to a smaller, more conceivable scale. [Illustration: THE NEBULA SEEN EDGE ON] If, then, we represent our earth as a little ball of one inch diameter, the sun would be a big globe nine feet across and 323 yards away, that is about a fifth of a mile, four or five minutes' walking. The moon would be a small pea two feet and a half from the world. Between earth and sun there would be the two inner planets, Mercury and Venus, at distances of one hundred and twenty-five and two hundred and fifty yards from the sun. All round and about these bodies there would be emptiness until you came to Mars, a hundred and seventy-five feet beyond the earth; Jupiter {4} nearly a mile away, a foot in diameter; Saturn, a little smaller, two miles off; Uranus four miles off and Neptune six miles off. Then nothingness and nothingness except for small particles and drifting scraps of attenuated vapour for thousands of miles. The nearest star to earth on this scale would be 40,000 miles away. These figures will serve perhaps to give one some conception of the immense emptiness of space in which the drama of life goes on. For in all this enormous vacancy of space we know certainly of life only upon the surface of our earth. It does not penetrate much more than three miles down into the 4,000 miles that separate us from the centre of our globe, and it does not reach more than five miles above its surface. Apparently all the limitlessness of space is otherwise empty and dead. The deepest ocean dredgings go down to five miles. The highest recorded flight of an aeroplane is little more than four miles. Men have reached to seven miles up in balloons, but at a cost of great suffering. No bird can fly so high as five miles, and small birds and insects which have been carried up by aeroplanes drop off insensible far below that level. {5} II THE WORLD IN TIME In the last fifty years there has been much very fine and interesting speculation on the part of scientific men upon the age and origin of our earth. Here we cannot pretend to give even a summary of such speculations because they involve the most subtle mathematical and physical considerations. The truth is that the physical and astronomical sciences are still too undeveloped as yet to make anything of the sort more than an illustrative guesswork. The general tendency has been to make the estimated age of our globe longer and longer. It now seems probable that the earth has had an independent existence as a spinning planet flying round and round the sun for a longer period than 2,000,000,000 years. It may have been much longer than that. This is a length of time that absolutely overpowers the imagination. Before that vast period of separate existence, the sun and earth and the other planets that circulate round the sun may have been a great swirl of diffused matter in space. The telescope reveals to us in various parts of the heavens luminous spiral clouds of matter, the spiral nebulæ, which appear to be in rotation about a centre. It is supposed by many astronomers that the sun and its planets were once such a spiral, and that their matter has undergone concentration into its present form. Through majestic æons that concentration went on until in that vast remoteness of the past for which we have given figures, the world and its moon were distinguishable. They were spinning then much faster than they are spinning now; they were at a lesser distance from the sun; they travelled round it very much faster, and they were probably incandescent or molten at the surface. The sun itself was a much greater blaze in the heavens. {6} [Illustration: THE GREAT SPIRAL NEBULA] If we could go back through that infinitude of time and see the earth in this earlier stage of its history, we should behold a scene more like the interior of a blast furnace or the surface of a lava flow before it cools and cakes over than any other contemporary scene. No water would be visible because all the water there was would still be superheated steam in a stormy atmosphere of sulphurous and metallic vapours. Beneath this would swirl and boil an ocean of molten rock substance. Across a sky of fiery clouds the glare of the hurrying sun and moon would sweep swiftly like hot breaths of flame. ==================================================================== {7} [Illustration: A DARK NEBULA] ==================================================================== Slowly by degrees as one million of years followed another, this {8} fiery scene would lose its eruptive incandescence. The vapours in the sky would rain down and become less dense overhead; great slaggy cakes of solidifying rock would appear upon the surface of the molten sea, and sink under it, to be replaced by other floating masses. The sun and moon growing now each more distant and each smaller, would rush with diminishing swiftness across the heavens. The moon now, because of its smaller size, would be already cooled far below incandescence, and would be alternately obstructing and reflecting the sunlight in a series of eclipses and full moons. [Illustration: ANOTHER SPIRAL NEBULA] And so with a tremendous slowness through the vastness of time, the earth would grow more and more like the earth on which we live, until at last an age would come when, in the cooling air, steam would begin to condense into clouds, and the first rain would fall hissing upon the first rocks below. For endless millenia the greater part of the earth's water would still be vaporized in the atmosphere, but there would now be hot streams running over the crystallizing {9} rocks below and pools and lakes into which these streams would be carrying detritus and depositing sediment. [Illustration: LANDSCAPE BEFORE LIFE] At last a condition of things must have been attained in which a man might have stood up on earth and looked about him and lived. If we could have visited the earth at that time we should have stood on great lava-like masses of rock without a trace of soil or touch of living vegetation, under a storm-rent sky. Hot and violent winds, exceeding the fiercest tornado that ever blows, and downpours of rain such as our milder, slower earth to-day knows nothing of, might have assailed us. The water of the downpour would have rushed by us, muddy with the spoils of the rocks, coming together into torrents, cutting deep gorges and canyons as they hurried past to deposit their sediment in the earliest seas. Through the clouds we should have glimpsed a great sun moving visibly across the sky, and in its wake and in the wake of the moon would have come a diurnal tide of earthquake and upheaval. And {10} the moon, which nowadays keeps one constant face to earth, would then have been rotating visibly and showing the side it now hides so inexorably. The earth aged. One million years followed another, and the day lengthened, the sun grew more distant and milder, the moon's pace in the sky slackened; the intensity of rain and storm diminished and the water in the first seas increased and ran together into the ocean garment our planet henceforth wore. But there was no life as yet upon the earth; the seas were lifeless, and the rocks were barren. {11}